The hangman’s noose tightened at dawn in Hamelin, Germany, on December 13, 1945, silencing the youngest female war criminal of the twentieth century. Irma Grese, just 22 years old, stood on the trapdoor with a single word for the British executioner: “Schnell,” meaning “quick.” Moments later, Johanna Bormann, 52, met the same fate.
They were not spectators to atrocity; they were its architects, and their deaths marked the beginning of a brutal reckoning that would stretch from British military courts to Polish gallows, forcing a shattered world to confront the faces of the women who ran Hell on Earth.
The scale of their crimes defies the tidy narratives of history. When the gates of Auschwitz-Birkenau swung open in May 1940, it was a political prison for Poles. By 1942, it had metastasized into the largest mass killing center in human history, a sprawling industrial complex located roughly 50 kilometers west of Krakow in occupied Poland.
The main camp, Auschwitz 1, served as the administrative hub, but it was Auschwitz 2, known as Birkenau, that became the epicenter of genocide, with gas chambers engineered to murder thousands daily. As the female prisoner population swelled to tens of thousands, the male SS guards were barred from entering the women’s barracks. To fill this void, the SS auxiliary force, known as the Helferinnen, began recruiting female overseers, the Aufseherinnen.
These were not conscripts; they were volunteers, lured by advertisements in German newspapers promising steady wages, better rations than civilians received, and housing.
Most of these recruits were young women between 17 and 30, drawn from working-class backgrounds in factories, shops, and farms. They underwent training at Ravensbrück, the women’s concentration camp located 90 kilometers north of Berlin. There, they were drilled in discipline, control of prisoner formations, and the daily administration of a camp.
More insidiously, they were indoctrinated to view their charges as subhuman. Some embraced this ideology with terrifying zeal, and none more so than Maria Mandl, the woman who would become the most powerful female in Auschwitz-Birkenau. Born in 1912 in the small Austrian town of Münzkirchen, Mandl lived an unremarkable life before joining the SS auxiliary in 1938.
After training at Lichtenburg and Ravensbrück, she arrived at Auschwitz in late 1942, where she was appointed Lagerführerin, the head overseer of the entire women’s camp, a position she held from 1942 until November 1944.
These were the bloodiest years of Auschwitz’s existence. Trains carrying Jewish families from Hungary, Greece, France, and the Netherlands arrived almost daily. Mandl personally participated in the selections on the arrival ramp.
While SS doctors like Josef Mengele divided prisoners into groups for forced labor or immediate death in the gas chambers, Mandl walked among them, making decisions herself. Historians estimate she played a direct role in selections that sent approximately 500,000 women and children to their deaths. She regularly inspected barracks, selecting prisoners for punishment, forced medical experiments in Block 10, or summary execution.
Survivor testimonies consistently describe her ability to determine a prisoner’s fate with a simple gesture while continuing a casual conversation. She also created the infamous women’s orchestra in April 1943, forcing musically talented prisoners to play classical music at the camp entrance and during roll calls, often as new arrivals stepped off the trains to the sound of cheerful melodies, unaware they would be dead within hours.
As the Soviet army advanced and Heinrich Himmler ordered a halt to gassing operations, Mandl was transferred to the Mühldorf subcamp in Bavaria in November 1944. She fled to the Austrian Alps after Germany’s surrender in May 1945, but American forces arrested her in August. She was handed over to Polish authorities and held for trial in Krakow.
Her subordinate, Therese Brandl, born in 1902 in Bavaria, served under Mandl from 1942 onward. Survivors described Brandl as an active participant in violence, beating women during roll calls and participating in selections. Her name appeared repeatedly in testimonies from survivors who had never met each other after the war, a consistency that would prove crucial in court.
Among all the guards, none became more infamous than Irma Grese. Born in 1923 in Frechen, northern Germany, she lost her mother to suicide at age 13 and left school at 15. She volunteered for SS auxiliary service at 18, trained at Ravensbrück, and arrived at Auschwitz-Birkenau in early 1943.
By age 19, she had risen to the rank of Oberaufseherin, or senior supervisor, one of the highest positions a woman could hold. Survivor testimonies about Grese are extensive and detailed. Witnesses said she carried a plaited leather whip and used it liberally against slow-moving prisoners, women selected during roll call, or simply anyone who caught her attention.
She was accused of shooting prisoners with a pistol, participating in selections for the gas chambers, and using a trained dog to attack inmates. She was young, blonde, and striking, and many survivors said her appearance made her violence even more shocking and surreal. She showed no signs of remorse or concern.
In November 1944, Grese was transferred to Bergen-Belsen in northern Germany. When British forces liberated that camp on April 15, 1945, they found approximately 60,000 surviving prisoners in horrific conditions, along with nearly 13,000 unburied corpses scattered throughout the camp. Grese was arrested there during the liberation, making no significant effort to escape.
The British military moved quickly, and the Belsen Trial, officially known as the Trial of Josef Kramer and 44 Others, opened on September 17, 1945, in Lüneburg, Germany. It was one of the first major war crimes trials after World War II, predating even the famous Nuremberg trials. Forty-five former SS personnel stood trial together, including Grese and another guard named Johanna Bormann.
Born in 1893 in East Prussia, Bormann was 52 at trial. Survivors particularly remembered her for using a trained dog against prisoners, allowing it to attack people while she stood and watched.
The trial lasted until November 17, 1945. Thirty of the 45 defendants were convicted. Grese and Bormann were both found guilty of war crimes for their actions at Auschwitz and Bergen-Belsen and sentenced to death.
The executions were carried out on December 13, 1945, at Hamelin Prison in Lower Saxony, conducted by British hangman Albert Pierrepoint. Grese was 22, making her the youngest woman executed under British jurisdiction in the twentieth century. According to contemporary reports, she showed little emotion before her execution, uttering only that single word to Pierrepoint before the hood was placed over her head.
Elisabeth Volkenrath, born in 1919, was also executed that morning. She had served as a senior guard at Bergen-Belsen and previously at Auschwitz. She was 26.
While the British conducted the Belsen Trial, Poland was preparing its own reckoning. Few nations suffered more under Nazi occupation. Between September 1939 and May 1945, Poland lost between 5.
6 and 6 million citizens, approximately 17 percent of its pre-war population. About 3 million of those victims were Polish Jews, nearly the entire Jewish population of the country. Auschwitz itself was located on occupied Polish soil, just outside the town of Oświęcim.
In January 1946, the Polish provisional government established the Supreme National Tribunal, known as the NTN, to try Nazi war criminals for crimes committed in Poland. The court operated until 1948 and handled seven major cases, including the trials of Auschwitz commandant Rudolf Höss and a large group of former SS personnel from Auschwitz.
The Höss trial was first. He commanded Auschwitz from May 1940 until November 1943 and briefly again in 1944. British troops arrested him in March 1946 while he was hiding under a false identity on a farm in Schleswig-Holstein.
He was sent to Poland, tried in March 1947, convicted of supervising the murder of millions, and sentenced to death. On April 16, 1947, Höss was hanged on a gallows built specifically outside the entrance to Auschwitz 1. The gallows stood a short distance from the gas chamber complex he helped create.
He was 46. That execution set the tone for what followed.
The largest post-war trial of Auschwitz personnel began in Krakow on November 24, 1947. Forty former SS members stood before the Supreme National Tribunal. The defendants included commanders, doctors, and guards who served at Auschwitz during different periods of its operation.
Among them were Maria Mandl and Therese Brandl. The trial took place in the Palace of Justice in Krakow, less than 70 kilometers from Auschwitz itself. The courtroom was packed daily with journalists, foreign observers, survivors, and relatives of victims.
Prosecutors built their case using a massive amount of evidence, including camp records captured by Soviet forces when they liberated Auschwitz in January 1945, prisoner registration documents, transport records, physical evidence from the camp, and testimony from hundreds of survivors who traveled from across Europe and the Soviet Union to testify. Survivor testimony was particularly powerful because it focused on specific events and specific people. Most defendants relied on the same defense: they were simply following orders.
The court studied that argument but largely rejected it. Judges focused on cases where witnesses described guards taking personal initiative in acts of violence that went far beyond any direct order. Mandl’s selections and Brandl’s beatings were not paperwork or routine administration; they were personal decisions.
On December 22, 1947, the verdicts were announced. Twenty-three of the 40 defendants received death sentences, including Mandl and Brandl. Eleven others received prison terms, while six were acquitted for insufficient evidence.
On January 24, 1948, the executions took place at Montelupich Prison in Krakow. During the Nazi occupation, the Gestapo had used the same prison to imprison and execute Polish resistance members. Maria Mandl was hanged that morning at age 35.
Therese Brandl was hanged the same day at age 45. They were executed alongside 21 SS officers from the same trial, including Arthur Liebehenschel, who served as Auschwitz commandant between November 1943 and May 1944. The executions were carried out individually inside the prison.
They were officially documented, witnessed by government representatives, and formally recorded. Although they were not public executions before large crowds, they were announced and widely reported in newspapers within Poland and abroad. Polish newspapers covered the story prominently.
Survivor organizations commemorated the date. News spread through letters, phone calls, and community gatherings among former prisoners across Europe and beyond.
Some legal scholars and observers in Western Europe later discussed the use of the death penalty and questioned whether trials conducted under a Soviet-aligned Polish government met all standards of fair justice. Those concerns were not entirely without legal merit, but they often came from people far removed from what happened inside Birkenau, and they carried little weight with many survivors. Not every female guard from Auschwitz faced the same fate.
The story of Hildegard Lächert demonstrates how post-war justice often fell short. Born on July 20, 1920, in Berlin, Lächert worked as an Aufseherin at Auschwitz-Birkenau and later at Majdanek, another concentration camp in occupied Poland near Lublin. Prisoners at both camps called her “Bloody Brigade” due to her reputation for using a whip and participating in the direct abuse and killing of prisoners.
She was only in her early twenties when these crimes occurred. Lächert was tried in Krakow in 1947 and convicted. However, unlike Mandl and Brandl, she received a prison sentence rather than the death penalty.
The exact reasons are not entirely clear from surviving records, but historians believe the volume and strength of evidence against her may have differed from the cases against the other women. After serving part of her sentence, she was released. She returned to West Germany and lived quietly for years.
Then in 1975, prosecutors in North Rhine-Westphalia reopened investigations related to Majdanek. This led to the Majdanek Trial in Düsseldorf, which began on November 26, 1975. It became the longest criminal proceeding in German history, lasting until June 30, 1981, nearly six years.
Lächert was one of the defendants. She was now 55. Many survivors who testified against her had been teenagers when she worked at Auschwitz and Majdanek; they were now middle-aged.
In 1981, the Düsseldorf court convicted Lächert and sentenced her to 12 years in prison. She served part of her sentence before being released due to poor health. She died in Germany in 1995 at age 74.
West Germany did not seriously confront the crimes of Auschwitz until the 1960s, and much of that was due to one man named Fritz Bauer. Born in 1903 in Stuttgart to a Jewish family, Bauer worked as a lawyer and judge before the Nazis came to power. During the Nazi era, he was forced into exile for being Jewish.
After the war, he returned to Germany and became the Attorney General of Hesse. Bauer is also known for secretly providing Israeli intelligence with information about Adolf Eichmann’s whereabouts in Argentina, which helped in his capture in 1960 and trial in Jerusalem the following year. Bauer believed Germany had not done enough to confront its past.
For years, he worked to gather evidence for a major trial related to Auschwitz within West Germany itself. His efforts led to the Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials, officially known as the First Frankfurt Auschwitz Trial. It began on December 20, 1963, and lasted until August 20, 1965, at the Frankfurt Regional Court.
Twenty-two former SS members from Auschwitz stood trial. Death sentences were not possible because West Germany had abolished capital punishment in 1949. The harshest possible penalty was life imprisonment.
However, the trial was extremely significant. For the first time, ordinary West Germans heard detailed public testimony about what happened at Auschwitz. The trial received extensive media coverage.
Newspapers reported on it almost daily. Schools organized visits to the courtroom. Survivors described what they saw and experienced inside the camp, and their testimony appeared on front pages across the country.
Although most defendants in Frankfurt were men, the trial set an important legal and social precedent.
The last major case related to Auschwitz involved a woman named Irmgard Furchner. Between 1943 and 1945, she worked as a shorthand typist and secretary at the Stutthof concentration camp near Danzig. In September 2021, at age 96, she attempted to avoid her trial by leaving her nursing home in a taxi before her first hearing.
Police found her later that same day. The trial continued. On December 20, 2022, the regional court in Itzehoe, Schleswig-Holstein, convicted her of complicity in the murder of 10,500 people.
She was sentenced to two years probation, and she was 97 at the time of the verdict. None of these trials would have happened without the survivors. Most survivors are largely unknown today.
However, the names of the perpetrators became famous through the very trials that their victims helped make possible.